By Luca Martinelli | 22-23

In the last twenty years companies have seen an exponential increase in the frequency and magnitude of organisational change due to global factors (e.g. the 2008 financial shock, Covid-19 and the wars in Ukraine and Israel) which contributed to widespread economic and social crises (UK Government, 2023). Therefore, organisations need to provide the right conditions for their employees to become more resilient in the face of these challenges. However, on average, only 30% of employees say their managers tolerate small-scale failures or encourage dissent and debate, only 50% find their job fulfilling, and 20% report their workload is unmanageable, leading to burnout (PwC, 2023b). Mental health issues are on the rise and are responsible for years of disability, having significant impact on treatment costs and productivity (McKinsey, 2022; Gaillard et al., 2020).

How can organisations promote the right conditions for their employees to flourish in a dynamic environment and which resources should employees cultivate to maximise their well-being and performance?

Job Demands-Resources theory (JD-R) provides a framework to increase employees’ work engagement, well-being and performance. JD-R proposes a two-legged mechanism where job demands (e.g. workload and time pressure) play a role in the development of exhaustion, while job resources (e.g. task variety, job control and colleagues’ support) and personal resources (e.g. optimism and self-efficacy) play a combined role in the development of motivation, decreasing or increasing work engagement and performance, respectively (Bakker et al., 2023).

Figure 1: The Job Demands-Resources model (Bakker et al., 2023)

Employers may be more inclined to maximise the use of job resources, keeping job demands constant, if productivity and financial targets do not allow job demands to be reduced (McKinsey, 2022). Thus, this study focused on which sets of job and personal resources are more effective at positively influencing well-being and performance (the green circuit in Figure 1).

Psychological Capital (PsyCap) is a set of personal resources, known by the acronym HERO, which have a positive relationship with well-being and performance (Luthans & Youssef-Morgan, 2017):

• Hope is the willpower to pursue identified goals through the generation of alternative pathways.
• Efficacy is the belief in the ability to take on and put in adequate effort to succeed at specific tasks.
• Resilience isthe attitude of bouncing back from setbacks, and the positive adaptation to move beyond, to attain success.
• Optimism is the positive internal attributions of life and work events, with the expectation that desirable outcomes will result through active efforts.

This study identified which job resources establish the best conditions for PsyCap to manifest. Job autonomy, control, influence over decision and supervisory support, were all identified as PsyCap antecedents. Employees who experience high level of autonomy and support are more likely to have higher confidence in their ability to pursue valued goals until they succeed (Avey, 2014).

Key results

Job resources. The study found that job autonomy and control, leaders support, and a more democratic power distribution, increase employees’ sense of belonging and agency, which in turn affect employees’ engagement, performance and individuals’ general well-being.

PsyCap. Psychological capital plays a key role in influencing work engagement, well-being and performance on its own, but also leveraging available job resources to increase job performance. For example, when employees feel empowered by their organisations to try new ways to perform work activities, their levels of self-efficacy and optimism increase, positively affecting engagement and performance.

The hero among the HERO. PsyCap facets differentially affected the relationship between job resources and work engagement, well-being and performance:

• Hope positively contributed to work engagement and well-being. Hope is the motivational engine that prompts individuals to pursue valued goals, both within and outside of work (Snyder, 2002). Job autonomy and decision latitude activate employees’ sense of agency, prompting them to plan their goals and experiment suitable pathways to pursue those goals.
• Efficacy positively affected job performance. A work environment that allows individuals’ abilities to be applied and exploited, as opposed to one that stultifies individuals’ autonomy and decision making, fosters individuals’ confidence in their ability to execute specific tasks successfully, translating into higher performance (Bandura, 2000).
• Resilience. Although the synergistic effect of HERO on well-being was positive, resilience alone played the opposite role in affecting employees’ well-being. For example, resilient individuals may have experienced traumas which made them more effective at reacting, but also more sensitive, to negative events. Although in the long term this may be associated with higher well-being, in the short term negative experiences may leave them temporarily scarred, lowering their well-being (The Young Foundation, 2012; Bonanno, 2021).
• Optimism played a dual role in enhancing work engagement and well-being, while negatively influencing performance. Optimism is the individuals’ internal attribution of positive work and non-work outcomes. Individuals who are supported by their leaders and are in control of their decisions are more likely to be actively engaged at work, increasing their sense of purpose and boosting their expectations of achieving positive outcomes (Luthans et al., 2015). However, there could be circumstances where more optimistic individuals may not foresee the pitfalls that lay ahead their chosen pathways, blinded by their self-beliefs, with a negative impact on performance (Norem & Chang, 2002).  Conversely, proactive pessimists harness their anxiety by carefully planning potential outcomes in response to threatening situations, with a positive impact on job performance (Perkins & Corr, 2005).

What can organisations do?

For instance, organisations could carry out organisational-level interventions, such as job redesign or management training, to foster a psychologically safe environment supportive of more democratic decision-making processes. These favourable conditions prompt employees to take calculated risks and experiment different ways of working, positively impacting their productivity (Holman et al., 2018). Equally, companies could use individual-level interventions to increase employees’ personal resources, indirectly benefiting well-being and performance (Meyers et al., 2013). For example, a two-hour PsyCap intervention was found to save time and achieve a higher ROI compared to other individual-level interventions (Luthans et al., 2006b). Here, employees identify relevant goals and note down alternative pathways to reach those goals, increasing hope (vision and purpose) and resilience (the determination to achieve those goals despite setbacks). Then, they present their goals to a group of colleagues who are encouraged to provide constructive feedback, increasing employees’ self-beliefs (through modelling) and optimism (positive expectation that their goals are achievable).

A word of warning may need to be given to companies to avoid one-size-fits-all approaches which may be suboptimal for some employees. Companies may need to develop bespoke interventions which consider individuals’ specific circumstances. There may be instances where too much of a positive state (e.g. being too optimism or too resilient) may backfire, temporarily affecting performance and well-being.

References

Avey, J. B. (2014). The left side of psychological capital: New evidence on the antecedents of PsyCap. Journal of Leadership & Organizational Studies, 21(2), 141-149. https://doi.org/10.1177/1548051813515516

Bakker, A. B., Demerouti, E., & Sanz-Vergel, A. (2023). Job demands-resources theory: Ten years later. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 10(1), 25-53. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-120920-053933

Bandura A. (2000). Cultivate self-efficacy for personal and organizational effectiveness. In Locke EA (Eds.), The Blackwell handbook of principles of organizational behavior (pp. 120–136). Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Bonanno, G. A. (2021). The resilience paradox. European Journal of Psychotraumatology, 12(1), 1942642-1942642. https://doi.org/10.1080/20008198.2021.1942642

Gaillard, A., Sultan-Taïeb, H., Sylvain, C., & Durand, M. (2020). Economic evaluations of mental health interventions: A systematic review of interventions with work-focused components. Safety Science, 132, 104982. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ssci.2020.104982

Holman, D., Johnson, S., & O’Connor, E. (2018). Stress management interventions: Improving subjective psychological well-being in the workplace. In E. Diener, S. Oishi, & L. Tay (Eds.), Handbook of well-being DEF Publishers.

Luthans, F., Avey, J. B., Avolio, B. J., Norman, S. M., & Combs, G. M. (2006b). Psychological capital development: Toward a micro-intervention. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 27(3), 387-393.

Luthans, F., Youssef, C. M., & Avolio, B. J. (2015). In Avolio B. J., Youssef-Morgan C. M.(Eds.), Psychological capital and beyond. Oxford University Press.

Luthans, F., & Youssef-Morgan, C. M. (2017). Psychological capital: An evidence-based positive approach. Annual Review of Organizational Psychology and Organizational Behavior, 4(1), 339-366. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-orgpsych-032516-113324

McKinsey Health Institute. (2022, May 27). Addressing employee burnout: Are you solving the right problem?. https://www.mckinsey.com/mhi/our-insights/addressing-employee-burnout-are-you-solving-the-right-problem

Meyers, M. C., van Woerkom, M., & Bakker, A. B. (2013). The added value of the positive: A literature review of positive psychology interventions in organizations. European Journal of Work and Organizational Psychology, 22(5), 618-632.

Norem, J. K., & Chang, E. C. (2002). The positive psychology of negative thinking. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 58(9), 993-1001.

Perkins, A. M., & Corr, P. J. (2005). Can worriers be winners? the association between worrying and job performance. Personality and Individual Differences, 38(1), 25-31.

PwC. (2023b, June 20). PwC’s global workforce hopes and fears survey 2023. https://www.pwc.com/gx/en/issues/workforce/hopes-and-fears.html

Snyder CR. (2002). Hope theory: Rainbows in the mind. Psychological Inquiry, 13(4), 249-276.

The Young Foundation. (2012, September 01). The wellbeing and resilience paradox. https://www.youngfoundation.org/our-work/publications/the-wellbeing-and-resilience-paradox-2/ UK Government.(2023, November 2). AI safety summit. Retrieved November 21, 2023, from https://www.safetysummit.gov.uk

By Sophie Roberts | 22-23

Research has shown that much of the gender pay gap can be attributed to the so-called ‘motherhood penalty’ (Ciminelli et al., 2021) whereas men benefit from a ‘fatherhood premium’ where their salaries increase after the birth of their children (Yu & Hara, 2021).  One recent study showed that men in the UK spend up to 60% less time than women on domestic and caring related tasks (Reynolds, 2022) despite increasing numbers of women in the workforce (DWP, 2022).  Paternity leave is one way of addressing this, providing families with an opportunity to re-define traditional gender roles and share childcare and domestic responsibilities between both parents.  When men take a more active role in parenting it has the potential to improve women’s prospects at work, strengthen family relationships and is also associated with better health and behavioural outcomes for children (Cools et al., 2015; Amato, 1999).  Increasing numbers of City organizations are supplementing the statutory two weeks with enhanced paid leave, but what are men doing during their time away from work and how do they feel about taking three months or more when the majority of UK fathers still only take two weeks?  One new study interviewed men in the professional and financial services sectors in the City of London to find out (Roberts, 2023).

What do men do on extended paternity leave?

The initial few weeks with a newborn were tough for first-time fathers who described feeling like a “rabbit in the headlights”, despite thinking they were prepared.  The role they were able to play changed as their babies grew, going from being “the support act” for the mother at the start to taking a more active role once their babies were more mobile and interactive.  Less than 20% of the men interviewed spent time in sole care of their child, with most spending their time at home along with their partners.  Those who remained on paternity leave after their partner returned to work spoke of a desire to “get up to speed” on the finer details of parenting, “the sort of stuff that traditionally mums deal with”.  When fathers have a chance to experience being the primary carer they feel more confident and competent as parents, challenging the idea of the mother being the default parent. 

The fathers interviewed for this study felt grateful to their employers for offering extended paternity leave, particularly the 80% who were paid during their time off.  They recognised their privilege in working for well-resourced City organizations who can afford to fund enhanced paternity leave. Almost half the fathers used some of their paternity leave to travel, seeking to make the most of what they considered to be a once in a lifetime opportunity to spend an extended period with their family.  Every father interviewed for the study said they would recommend extended paternity leave to others, suggesting that the benefits outweigh any concerns about the impact it might have on their career.

How do men’s perspectives change after extended paternity leave?

One of the drivers for longer paternity leave is to create a more level playing field and remove some of the advantages men have over women in the workplace (Mitchell, 2023).   One participant explicitly referred to this saying, “It’s about gender pay gap. It’s about me being as much of a maternity risk as my wife.”  Through their experience of taking three months or more away from work, the men developed an understanding of the challenges mothers have traditionally faced such as losing clients and feeling anxious upon their return to work.  Getting an insight into how women feel after parental leave was valuable and participants felt they had become more empathic colleagues as a result.

The transition back to work was challenging for many of the men who struggled to balance their desire to be hands-on fathers with demanding jobs in the City.  Attempting to do it all resulted in health problems for some of the participants and prompted a re-evaluation of their priorities.  The men recognised that it was not possible to be the father they wanted to be at the same time as seeking promotion and excelling in their careers.  Instead there was a sense that a career is a marathon not a sprint, and despite focusing on family whilst their children are young they would still be able to grow their careers again in future.

How can organizations better support men taking extended paternity leave?

The results of the study led to several recommendations to improve the experience of men on extended paternity leave.

• Publicise success stories from across the business, including senior level and fee-earning staff.  Even when policies are available to all employees, some feel unable to take it due to their tenure or employment level.  Role models help to create a culture where men feel empowered to take advantage of parental leave policies.
• Offer coaching before, during and after to provide men with a space to explore their attitudes to parenthood and work, decide on their priorities and pro-actively plan for balancing work and home life. 
• Offer a staged return or reading week so fathers can get back up to speed before being expected to cope with the full demands of their job
• Make policies flexible so paternity leave can be taken at any point during the child’s first year or split into chunks.  This means that fathers can decide whether the main focus of their time is to support the mother’s recovery from childbirth and bond as a family, or to experience being the primary carer of their child while their partner resumes her career.

Conclusions

Extended paternity leave has been shown to contribute to an increased awareness of the challenges women have traditionally faced at home and work, and it was a positive experience for all participants. However, less than 20% of the fathers in this study spent time without their partner on paternity leave so the idea of women as primary carers remains strong.  More help is needed to prepare men for the challenges of parenting but also in defining their new identities as working fathers.  Overall the men in this study felt confident that they would be able to resume their career trajectory at a later stage, suggesting that it is possible for men to ‘have it all’, just not at the same time.

References

Amato P. R., Rivera F. (1999). Paternal involvement and children’s behavior problems.
            Journal of Marriage and Family, 61, 375-384. https://doi.org/10.2307/353755

Ciminelli, G., C. Schwellnus and B. Stadler (2021, May 7). “Sticky floors or glass ceilings? The role of          human capital, working time flexibility and discrimination in the gender wage gap“. OECD.   https://www.oecd-ilibrary.org/economics/sticky-floors-or-glass-ceilings-the-role-of-human-         capital-working-time-flexibility-and-discrimination-in-the-gender-wage-gap_02ef3235-en           https://doi.org/10.1787/02ef3235-en.

Cools, S., Fiva, J. H., & Kirkebøen, L. J. (2015). Causal effects of paternity leave on children and     parents. The Scandinavian Journal of Economics, 117(3), 801- 828.  https://doi.org/10.1111/sjoe.12113

Department for Work and Pensions (2022, July 19) https://www.gov.uk/government/news/two-  million-more-women-in-work-since-2010-as-uk-unemployment-remains-low  Retrieved March 27, 2023

Mitchell, G. (2023). Shared parental leave: Can transferable maternity leave ever encourage fathers         to care?. Industrial Law Journal, 52(1), 149-178. https://doi.org/10.1093/indlaw/dwac015

Reynolds, E. (2022, September 16). “Women bear the brunt of unpaid labour- and it may be affecting       their mental health”. BPS. https://www.bps.org.uk/research-digest/women-bear-brunt-     unpaid- labour-and-it-may-be-affecting-their-mental-health 

Roberts, S.C. (2023) The privileged few: A qualitative study of men’s experiences of extended                   paternity leave from financial and professional services jobs in the City of London. A      Thematic Analysis (Unpublished MSc thesis). City, University of London.  London.

Yu, W. & Hara, Y (2021). Motherhood Penalties and Fatherhood Premiums: Effects of Parenthood on        Earnings Growth Within and Across Firms. Demography 58 (1), 247–272.      doi: https://doi.org/10.1215/00703370-8917608