By Ellie Spotswood (21-22)

1. Background

Since the Coronavirus pandemic and rise of remote working, the incorporation of technology into job roles has continued to grow. Workplace technology has many organisational advantages, such as increasing the pace of work and information processing, but unfortunately can also have adverse effects on employees which are sometimes overlooked. Previous studies have found that increased use of technology at work in recent years has simultaneously increased the amount of ‘techno-stressors’ employees are subjected to.

Ragu-Nathan et al. (2008) proposed that there are many different forms of techno-stressors, such as techno-overload, techno-invasion and techno-complexity. Techno-overload pertains to experiences in which technology causes individuals to work at a rapid pace for excessive periods of time. Techno-invasion entails experiences in which the constant connectivity provided by technology causes a lack of separation between one’s work and personal life. Techno-complexity refers to experiences whereby the complexness of technology causes individuals to feel intimidated and pressured to improve their technical competence.

These techno-stressors are recognised as ‘job demands’, which increase employee strain and result in burnout (Demerouti et al, 2001). Fortunately, the JDR model suggests that different types of job resources can decrease burnout by reducing employee strain. Some examples of job resources that help to reduce burnout in a digitally-forward workplace include giving employees training (such as technology competency), organisational support (such as facilitating adaption to new ways of work) and control (employees have flexibility in how/where they work).

Furthermore, later revisions of the JDR model propose that employee’s personal resources also have a key role in the reduction of burnout (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007). Previous studies have analysed vague personal resources such as self-efficacy and resilience however, one study has recently identified psychological flexibility as a significant personal resource (Biron & van Veldhoven, 2012). In fact, the study found that psychological flexibility was the greatest, most significant inhibitor of burnout.

2. Purpose of the Research study

The primary aim of the current research was to identify significant predictors of employee burnout; specifically, the demands and resources of a digitally focused workplace. This study draws on the core principles of the JD-R model (Bakker & Demerouti, 2007), in combination with techno-stress research (Ragu-Nathan et al., 2008) and the foundations of ACT (Hayes et al., date). Combining these ideologies allowed this study to explore job demands and resources from a novel viewpoint, using techno-stressors as demands and psychological flexibility as a personal resource, and their negative/positive influence on employee burnout. Thereafter, explanations behind these relationships can be postulated and the potential functions of resources in combatting employee burnout can be examined.

3. Method overview

104 participants were recruited through an advertisement of the study on LinkedIn, which contained a link to the online research survey. 59% participants identified as male, 40% identified as female and 1% preferred not to state their gender. Participants were aged between 21 and 60 years old, with the average age being 38. Participants were employed from a multitude of work sectors, such as Finance, Consulting, Healthcare, Education and Marketing. In the online questionnaire, participants were presented with a series of questions designed to measure their experience of techno-stressors, workplace technology guidance, employee control, psychological flexibility and burnout, all of which they were required to respond to using different scales.

4. Overview of main findings

Our study showed that total techno-stressors had a positive relationship with burnout, and specifically highlighted techno-overload as a significant positive predictor of burnout.

Two resources, employee control and psychological flexibility, were identified as significant negative predictors of burnout.

Moreover, this study revealed that even when accounting for the adverse influence of techno-stressors, psychological flexibility had a significant negative influence on employee burnout. This finding is particularly important as it shows that even though high levels of techno-stressors is related to high levels of burnout, high levels psychological flexibility can still be used as a key personal resource to reduce burnout.

4.2 The Resourceful Employee

The cognitive constructs described in the table represent the six facets of psychological flexibility/inflexibility established by Hayes et al. (2013), namely: present moment awareness (or lack of), values clarity (or lack of), committed action (or lack of), self as context (or attachment to conceptualised self), cognitive defusion (or fusion), acceptance (or experiential avoidance).

These ‘traits’ can be used by employees as resources to prevent burnout. For some individuals, psychologically flexibility develops naturally; however, empirical evidence shows that psychological flexibility can also be developed through training.

5 Recommendations: what can organisations do?

Preventing Techno-Overload

First and foremost, organisations should acknowledge and raise employee awareness of the influence of techno-stressors (specifically techno-overload) on burnout.Additionally, considering that techno-overload had the most significant influence on burnout, organisations should implement policies to combat techno-overload. Furthermore, managers and employees could mutually agree on how to adjust technology usage expectations to employees’ needs (Rowher et al., 2022), including preferred digital communication methods, firm contact availability periods and feasible response rates (Ninaus et al., 2021). Moreover, organisations could suggest and promote minimal technology usage during work breaks to avoid overload (Mellner, 2016).

Developing Psychological Flexibility

To provide a proactive and preventative approach to burnout, organisations may be able to help employees build psychological flexibility by introducing acceptance and commitment therapy (ACT) interventions. During ACT sessions, employees are taught acceptance skills. For example, that it is healthier to acknowledge, rather than avoid, perceivably stressful experiences as a natural occurrence that need not be labelled as harmful. Consequently, employees will be more psychologically flexible and able to maintain composure even in the face of work-related stressors (Moran, 2015). Asides from the benefit of reduced burnout, another benefit of ACT is that employees with high resulting psychological flexibility are more likely to embrace new ways of working and adapt their job skills (Varra et al.,2008). This is particularly beneficial given the ongoing need to upskill employees in line with work-place technology renovations.

By Natalie Markiewicz (21-22)

We have all heard about those famous people who failed multiple times before achieving great success.  Who can forget the number of rejections that JK Rowling received before Bloomsbury Publishing recognised how special Harry Potter was?  Similarly, Sir James Dyson claims to have made 5,126 mistakes over 15 years before finally achieving global success with his vacuum cleaner.[1]  Even Albert Einstein was a slow learner, diagnosed with dyslexia, yet still became one of the most world’s most influential physicists.  All these people seem to have taken failure and used it as a conduit to achieve their greatest success.  Even the Bible tells us that ‘a righteous man can fall seven times and rise’[2], suggesting that by channelling the power of failure, and using it as an educational tool, a righteous man is created through falling.

However, have you ever considered the impact of failures in the medical profession? Have you ever thought about how many medical errors are made per year, or the effect these mistakes can have on not only you but your family and your friends?

It is estimated that there are 237 million medication errors per year in England, costing more than £98 million and at least 1700 lives[3]. Overall,errors in healthcare are a significant cause of patient morbidity[4]. The World Health Organization recognises the significance of the quantity and repercussions of these errors, and aims to make improvements in this area, yet there is no emphasis on the emotional drain on medical personal nor support for the recovery and prevention of these mistakes[5].

A recent research study aimed to understand the impact of these mistakes on the healthcare professionals. It chose to focus primarily on doctors and nurses, understanding why some crumble as a result of making an error, often leading them to leave the profession, whereas others take learnings and are able to thrive, making them better medical professionals as a result.  Although much research has already been undertaken looking at errors made by individuals in the healthcare sector, there is limited information specifically looking at the implications of medical errors on an individual and the circumstances that subsequently lead them to not only recover but thrive directly from the failure.

This new study transcribed and interpreted interviews with twelve medical professionals in order to understand their personal experiences with failure, and how they dealt with the consequences.  Additionally, the study aimed to establish whether there were specific circumstances which led these professionals to thrive after an error as opposed to crumble from the pressure.

From the study, three main themes were created, and each theme was subsequently further analysed and divided into subthemes as shown in the table below.

 The first theme identified was psychological safety, with the subthemes of emotional support, organisational structure with support from work, and safe to communicate.  The second theme of fear had subthemes of repercussions and vigilance.  The final theme, introspection, was divided into subthemes of purpose, blame versus responsibility and growth mindset.

A psychologically safe environment was found to be vital, including support from the organisational structure, clear channels of communication, and both emotional and practical support networks play a key role in establishing whether a professional is able to recover from an error made.

The study also determined that in order to prevent failure, an element of fear is necessary and helpful, however fear in the extreme can lead to anxiety, over vigilance and burnout, leading to further mistakes, therefore employers need to be aware that this can cause more damage. Thus, a supportive environment is crucial to ensure professionals can communicate and recover from mistakes rather than choose to leave the profession.

Additionally, the study highlighted the importance of creating a culture of accountability rather than blame, in order to avoid the fear of failure and to create an environment which encourages a growth mindset. Furthermore, the findings suggest that having a purpose within one’s career can enhance their capacity to thrive.

Overall, the findings are significant for employers in the healthcare sector as medical errors are incredibly common. By undertaking to protect their workers, they can cultivate an environment where mistakes are used as a learning tool instead of eroding staff morale and mental health, leading to further medical errors. 

How can healthcare environments respond?

The study suggests a number of practical recommendations for healthcare providers to adopt in order to protect their employees.  The key implications include:

• Organisations transitioning from claiming they are a ‘no blame’ culture to rephrasing it as a ‘responsibility culture’.
• More face to face as opposed to online communications to avoid miscommunications.
• Providing emotional support, such as counselling, and practical support from managers, once an error has taken place, to allow a professional to have to time to process and heal.
• Encourage the use of peer-to-peer WhatsApp Groups to provide a space for validation and venting.
• Training to be given to medical staff on supporting their team members in these circumstances.
• Education to encourage professionals to develop a growth mindset.

Not only are these findings beneficial for the medical professional, but they are also beneficial for employers to recognise the importance of allowing recovery after mistakes.  Rather than training new medical staff, encouraging professionals to see a mistake as a learning opportunity and helping them with a growth mindset can save both money and time and create a culture where professionals can thrive and grow.

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[1] Kim, H. (2015). The Safety of Failure in Different Cultures: Cognitive, Motivational, and Social Effects of Psychological Safety on Team Creativity. Seoul Journal of Industrial Relations,, 26.

[2] Proverbs 24:16

[3] BMJ. (2020, 06 11). Economic analysis of the prevalence and clinical and economic burden of medication error in England. Retrieved from  BMJ.com: https://www.bmj.com/company/newsroom/237-million-medication-errors-made-every-year-in-england

[4] Parker, J., & Davies, B. (2020). No Blame No Gain? From a No Blame Culture to a Responsibility Culture in Medicine. Journal of Applied Philosophy, 37(4), 646- 660. doi: 10.1111/japp.12433.

[5] Elliott, R. A., Camacho, E., Jankovic, D., Sculpher, M. J., & Faria, R. (2021). Economic analysis of the prevalence and clinical and economic burden of medication error in England. BMH Qual Saf, 30, 96-105. doi 10.1136/bmjqs-2019-010206.